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Section 4 Techniques and Tools

4.14 Participant observation

Participant observation is infrequently used in research and consultation in public services but it has a very long history in social science research. It has great potential to be used more, in particular, through making greater use of events and situations that are happening anyway and making better use of existing groups, for the explicit purpose of gathering views on service quality. In this way, participant observation may be part of an approach to making the most of what you already know.

Participant observation is a research approach that involves trying to get as close as possible to the perspectives of the people being researched by becoming involved in and sharing in the same situations as them. A key feature of participant observation is that data should be collected in ways that cause as little disruption as possible to the ordinary activities of the research context. Data collection involves a mix of observing what is happening, conducting informal in-depth interviews and interviewing people spontaneously by talking with them in a similar way to having an ordinary conversation. This may involve taking opportunities to talk as they arise. Although interviewing and observation are distinct methods of gathering information, in participant observation the researcher must often observe and talk with people simultaneously and interweave the activities of looking, seeing, watching, talking, asking and listening in much the same way as these activities are interwoven in ordinary life.

Collecting information in ‘context’ enables a greater possibility of understanding and relating to events and why people behave the way they do. For example, interviewing a member of staff or asking them to fill out a questionnaire about how they deal with complaints from service users will provide data that is an account of what the person says they do and that relies on their recall of relevant situations and circumstances. But these views may not be a sufficiently detailed or accurate reflection of what really happens during the course of this type of activity.

Directly observing and listening, being involved in events as they happen and being able to ask questions allows the researcher to get nearer to the perspectives of those involved because the researcher is sharing the same situations. Data from participant observation undertaken in real contexts is likely to be better quality and to reflect a closer view of what actually happens than data gathered from the artificially created and controlled environments of interviews or questionnaires.

Who should undertake observation?

The use of experienced external researchers is recommended to ensure objectivity and rigour in conducting participant observation. The difficulties of sustaining detachment from the activities being observed are particularly pronounced for those with prior knowledge and involvement in the particular context and this makes it difficult to use service users themselves as participant observers.

Sampling in participant observation

Research by participant observation is more concerned with understanding meanings and how people make sense of things in the research setting. Sampling is, therefore, less concerned about issues of representativeness and generalisability. Theoretical sampling based on snowball and opportunistic techniques are often used.

Accessing research settings

Gaining access to the research setting may be problematic. For example, gaining access through senior management may affect whether co-operation and trust is shown to the researcher by other departmental members or by service user organisations, particularly if they suspect the research is part of a management strategy that will be detrimental to their jobs or to service provision. It is important to think about issues such as these and, where necessary, to negotiate access and how best to introduce the researcher to people who will be part of the study.

Ethical conduct

Although participant observation can be conducted ‘covertly’ which refers to the participant observer concealing their identity as a researcher, this approach is full of ethical problems related to informed consent and deception and also to practical problems of recording information undetected. It is unlikely to be appropriate in research and consultation on service quality. Adopting an ‘overt’ approach is likely to be more appropriate and practical. This involves the researcher being open about their research role to those in the context and being open about what is to be researched, why it is being researched and how the findings will be used.

A general problem for all research is that people will alter their behaviour or not express their true opinions in the presence of the researcher. It is particularly important that the participant observer reassures people about why the research is taking place, what the research is about and how the research findings will be used. This is a matter of ethical research practice and is also likely to help build rapport and trust between the researcher and people involved in the study.

The participant observer must also be aware of research issues and conduct that may lead to bias. The key point of participant observation is to try to get as close as possible to the perspectives of those being researched and to try to interpret situations in the same way as the people being studied. The quality of the data is reliant upon the observational skills of the researcher and what the researcher chooses to observe.

As with all research, the researcher should be alert to their own values, what they choose to include and exclude in the research and their reasons for doing so and how these values and choices may affect the research. It is also important that whilst the participant observer needs to become involved with the people being studied, they also need to remain detached and to guard against the possibility of over-identifying with those being studied.

Recording and analysing data

Recording information largely depends on the research situation. Fieldnotes are generally kept and sometimes it is possible to use tape recorders and video recorders. Whichever methods of recording information are used it is important to be detailed and to devise a system that allows easy retrieval of information.

Analysis and interpretation of data is undertaken in a similar way to analysing and interpreting data gathered by in-depth interviews.

Detailed information about participant observation can be found elsewhere(1). A fuller discussion about the use of observational methods in housing research is also available elsewhere (see references (16)).

Participant observation: checklist

√ Ensure that researchers are experienced to maximise objectivity and rigour in carrying out participant observation.

√ Ensure that sampling and selection strategies are appropriate for the context and that events, locations and times as well as people are considered.

√ Ensure that sampling and selection is guided by the developing analysis.

√ Anticipate and address possible barriers to access and barriers to the development of co-operation, rapport and trust.

√ Ensure that research participants are provided with a detailed and accurate account of what the research is about, why it is being undertaken and how the findings will be used.

√ Be aware of how the researcher’s values and choices may affect the research.

√ Ensure that information is recorded in detail and is easily retrievable.

Alternative and related approaches

• Qualitative in-depth interviews

• Action research

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(1) Burgess, R.G., 1984, In the Field: An Introduction to Field Research, London: Routledge

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